• the involvement of governor Albinus with criminal gangs 
• the removal of rights of Jews in Caesarea 
• the pollution of the synagogue of Caesarea
• the murder of High Priest Jonathan 
• the murder of High Priest Ananias 
• the refusal to sacrifice to the Emperor 
• the Fourth Philosophy that held divine assistance would come to a rebellion: "the infection which spread from them among the younger sort, who became zealous for it, brought the public to destruction."
• the criminal acts and abuse of authority on the part of  governor Gessius Florus 
• a conspiracy on the part of Florus
• a certain ambiguous oracle (War 6.5.4) 

   These are the specific elements Josephus stresses in his works. There is a larger context, some of which is indicated in the introduction to the War. The empire had grown weak in the last days of Nero. The corruption of the governors directly reflected the flaws in their emperor. Judea was not the only province to revolt; but its war was the longest and bloodiest. And the problems of religious nationalism and class and ethnic struggle had its roots in the long history of the Jews and the unresolved problems of  the correct form of religious observance and the place of the powerful non-Jewish nations in the divine plan. 

   Over the years commentators have scrutinized these causes and have written much on the subject. Readers who become familiar with what Josephus says in the following extracts will enjoy reading these modern works. 
 

"And This was the True Beginning" (66 CE)

Herod, The Rabbis and The Golden Eagle (4 BCE) 
War 1.33.2 648-655  
 
   To Herod's other troubles was now added an insurrection of the populace. There were in the capital two men of learning with a reputation as profound experts in the Laws of their country, who consequently enjoyed the highest esteem of the whole nation; their names were Judas, son of Sepphoraeus, and Matthias, son of Margalus. Their lectures on the Laws were attended by a large youthful audience, and day after day they drew together quite an army of men in their prime. 
   Hearing now that the king was gradually sinking under despondency and disease, these teachers threw out hints to their friends that this was the fitting moment to avenge God's honour and to pull down what had been erected in defiance of their fathers' Laws: for although it was unlawful to place in the Temple either images or busts or any representation whatsoever of a living creature, the king had nonetheless erected over the great gate a golden eagle. It was this these teachers now exhorted their disciples to cut down. They told them that if any danger should arise, it was a glorious thing to die for the Law of one's country; for the souls of those who came to such an end attained immortality and an eternal enjoyment of happiness; it was only  the ignoble, uninitiated in their philosophy,  who clung in their ignorance to life and preferred death by disease to that of a hero. 
   While they were discoursing on this, a rumour spread that the king was dying; the news caused the young men to throw themselves more boldly into the enterprise. At mid-day, accordingly, when numbers of people were perambulating the Temple, they let themselves down from the roof on stout cords and began chopping off the golden eagle with hatchets. The king's captain, to whom the matter was immediately reported, hastened to the scene with a considerable force, arrested about forty of the young men and conducted them to the king. Herod first asked them whether they had dared to cut down the golden eagle; they admitted it. 
   "Who ordered you to do so?" he continued. 
   "The Law of our fathers." 
   "And why so exultant, when you will shortly be put to death?" 
   "Because we shall enjoy greater happiness after our death." 
   This provoked the king to such fury that he overcame his disease...he ordered those that had let themselves down from the roof, together with the teachers, to be burnt alive; the remainder of those arrested he handed over to his executioners.

Flash Revolt At Herod's Death  
War 2.1.2 6 
[Herod has died and his son Archelaus has claimed the throne]. 
Towards evening, however, a large number of those who were bent on revolution assembled on the same spot, and, now that the public mourning for Herod was ended, began a lamentation on their own account, bewailing the fate of those who had been punished for cutting down the golden eagle from the gate of the Temple. This mourning was in no subdued tones: there were piercing shrieks, a dirge directed by a conductor, and lamentations with beating of the breast which resounded throughout the city; all this in honour of the unfortunate men who, they asserted had in defence of their country's laws and the Temple perished on the pyre. These martyrs ought, they clamoured, to be avenged by the punishment of Herod's favorites.

War 2.1.3 10 
And now the feast of unleavened bread, which the Jews call Passover, came round...The promoters of the mourning for the teachers stood in a body in the temple, procuring recruits for their faction. ...Archelaus now felt that it would be impossible to restrain the mob without bloodshed, and let loose upon them his entire army...the soldiers, falling unexpectedly among the various parties busy with their sacrifices slew about three thousand of them and dispersed the remainder among the neighboring hills. 

The Census of Quirinius (6 CE) 
Antiquities 18.1.1  3-10 
(See also War 2.8.1)  
Now Quirinius, a Roman senator..was dispatched by Caesar to be governor of  Syria, and to take an account of their property...He came into Judea, which had now been  annexed to the province of Syria, to take an account of their property, and to liquidate Archelaus's estate. Although the Jews at the beginning  took the report of a  taxation heinously, yet did they leave off any further opposition to it, by the persuasion of the high priest Joazar,  son of Beethus. So they, being convinced  by Joazar's words, gave an account of their estates, without any dispute about it. 
 

Taxation is Slavery

   Yet was there one Judas, a Gaulonite of  a city whose name was Gamala, who, taking with him Sadduc, a Pharisee, threw himself into the cause of rebellion. They said that this taxation was nothing less than the beginning of slavery, and exhorted the nation to assert their liberty. If successful they would procure themselves security  for what they possessed, while if they failed they would earn honor and glory for their lofty goal. They also said that God would be assisting them to no lesser end than the furthering of their enterprise until they be successful; and this especially, if with high devotion in their hearts they would not shrink from executing whatever must be done. 

Revolutionary teachings received with pleasure

Since the people received  their words with pleasure,  this attempt to strike boldly proceeded to a great height, and so all sorts of misfortunes sprang from these men, and the nation was infected with this doctrine to a degree beyond words. 
   One violent war came upon us after another, and we lost our friends which used to alleviate our pains; there were also very great robberies and murder of our principal men. This was done in pretense indeed for the public welfare, but in reality for the hopes of gain to themselves; whence arose seditions, and from them murders of men, which sometimes fell on those of their own people, (by the madness of these men towards one another, while their desire was that none of the adverse party might be left,) and sometimes on their enemies. 
... 
    For Judas and Sadduc started a fourth philosophic school among us..This I will now describe, because the infection which spread from it among the younger sort, who became zealous for it, brought the public to destruction. 
 

Description of the Fourth Philosophy 
A. 18.1.6 23  
 
[The other three philosophies are the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, which Josephus has just discussed.] 
But of the fourth of the philosophies, Judas the Galilean was the author. This school agrees in all other things with the Pharisaic notions, except that  they have an unconquerable passion for liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord. 
    They also think little of dying any kinds of death, nor indeed do they heed the deaths of their relations and friends, nor can any such fear make them call any man lord. And since this immovable resolution of theirs is well known to a great many, I shall speak no further about that matter; nor am I afraid that any thing I have said of them should be disbelieved, but rather fear that what I have said inadequately conveys the resolution they show when they undergo pain. 
   And it was in the time of Gessius Florus, who was  procurator, that the nation began to grow mad with this distemper, after he occasioned the Jews to go wild with it by the abuse of his authority and to make them revolt from the Romans. 
 

(Antiquities 18.3.4 63) 
teacher of people who with pleasure received the truth   
didaskolos anthroponton hedone talethe dechomenon 

(Antiquities 18.1.1 6) 
for with pleasure hearing  the words responded the people 
hedone gar ten akroasin hon legoien edechonto ho anthropoi 

A Path in the Wilderness: Promises of Signs from Heaven 
War 2.17.2 258 
There was also another body of wicked men gotten together, not so impure in their actions but more wicked in their intentions, which laid waste the happy state of the city no less than did these murderers. Deceivers and impostors, under pretense of Divine inspiration, but who were for procuring revolutionary changes of the government; prevailed with the multitude to act like madmen, and went before them into the wilderness, as pretending that God would there show them the signals of liberty. But Felix thought this procedure was to be the beginning of a revolt; so he sent some horsemen and footmen both armed, who destroyed a great number of them. 
 

Prophets and Revolutionaries Work Together (54-60 CE) 
War 2.13.5-6 261-5 
 
   But there was an Egyptian false prophet that did the Jews more mischief than the former; for he was a cheat, and pretended to be a prophet also, and got together thirty thousand men that were deluded by him; these he led round about from the wilderness to the mount which was called the Mount of Olives, and was ready to break into Jerusalem by force from that place; and if he could but once conquer the Roman garrison and the people, he intended to domineer over them by the assistance of those guards of his that were to break into the city with him. But Felix anticipated his attempt, and met him with the Roman heavy infantry, while all the people assisted him in his attack upon them, insomuch that when it came to a battle, the Egyptian ran away, with a few others, while the greatest part of those that were with him were either destroyed or taken alive; but the rest of the multitude were dispersed every one to their own homes, and there concealed themselves. 
    Now when these were quieted, it happened, as it does in a diseased body, that another part was subject to an inflammation; for the deceivers and robbers got together, and persuaded the Jews to revolt, and exhorted them to assert their liberty, threatening death to those that continued in obedience to the Roman government,  saying that such as willingly chose slavery ought to be forced from their inclinations. They parted themselves into different companies up and down the country, and plundered the houses of the great men, and slew the men themselves, and set the villages on fire; and this till all Judea was filled with the effects of their madness. And thus the flame was every day more and more blown up, till it came to a direct war. 

Omens Interpreted by the Seditious 
War 2.22.1 
There were also such omens observed as were understood to be forerunners of evils by such as loved peace, but were by those that kindled the war interpreted so as to suit their own inclinations; and the very state of the city, even before the Romans came against it, was that of a place doomed to destruction. 
 

 
 The Inviolability of Zion (70 CE) 
 War 6.2.1 Sec. 98-99 

  His words were received by the people in dejection and silence; but the tyrant [John], after many invectives and imprecations upon Josephus, ended by saying that he "could never fear capture, since the city was God's."

The Reason Above All Others: A Messiah 
War 6.5.4 312-315 

But what more than all else incited them to the war was an ambiguous oracle also found in their sacred writings, that: 

"At about that time, one from their country would become ruler of the habitable world." 

This they took to mean one of their own people, and many of the wise men were misled in their interpretation. This oracle, however, in reality signified the government of Vespasian, who was proclaimed Emperor while in Judea.

Class Conflict Between Sadducees and Pharisees 
Antiquities 13.10.7 
Great disputes and differences have arisen between them; but the Sadducees are able to persuade none but the rich, and have not the populace obsequious, while the Pharisees have the multitude on their side. 

Among the Priests  
Antiquities 20.8.8 180-181 (56 CE) 
(See also Antiquities 20.9.2 205-207) 
There now was enkindled mutual enmity and class warfare between the high priests on the one hand, and the priests and the principal men of the multitude of Jerusalem on the other. Each of the factions got for itself a company of the boldest revolutionaries and became leaders to them; and when they clashed, they did it by casting reproachful words against one another and throwing stones. And there was nobody to rebuke them; they acted with full license, as if there were no government over the city. Such was the impudence and boldness that had seized on the high priests that they had the hardness to send servants to the  threshing-floors to receive the tithes that were due to the priests, with the result that the poorer priests starved to death. 
 
 
 

Ethnic Conflict

Ethnic Rioting  
A20.8.7 173-177  
(See also War 2.13.7) 
There arose also a quarrel between the Jewish and Syrian inhabitants of Caesarea on the subject of equal civic rights. The Jews claimed that they had precedence because the founder of Caesarea, their king Herod , was of Jewish descent. The Syrians admitted what they said about Herod; but they said that Caesarea was formerly called Strato's Tower, and that before  Herod's time there was not one Jewish inhabitant. When the magistrates of the district heard of these disorders, they arrested the authors of them on both sides, and tormented them with stripes, and by that means put a stop to the disturbance for a time...Next the Jews and Syrians took to casting stones at each other, until it came about that many on both sides were wounded and fell.

Rights Annulled at Caesarea (60 CE) 
A 20.8.9 182-184 

The leaders of the Syrians in Caesarea, by offering a large bribe, prevailed on Beryllus, who was Nero's tutor ...to apply for a letter from Nero annulling the grant of equal civic rights to the Jews. Beryllus exhorted the emperor and succeeded in getting his authorization for the letter. This letter provided the basis that led to the subsequent miseries that befell our nation. For the Jewish inhabitants of Caesarea, when they learned of Nero's letter, carried their quarrel with the Syrians further and further until at last they kindled the flames of war. 

Greek Sacrifice at Synagogue of Caesarea:  
The War Begins (66 CE) 
War 2.14.4-6 284-296 
   Now at this time it happened that the Greeks of Caesarea had obtained from Nero the government of the city, and had brought back with them the text of the the decision: and now began the war, in the twelfth year of the reign of Nero, and the seventeenth of the reign of Agrippa, in the month of Artemisins [Iyar, April/May.] 
   The occasion of this war was by no means proportionable to those heavy calamities which it brought upon us. For the Jews that dwelt at Caesarea had a synagogue near the place, whose owner was a certain Cesarean Greek: the Jews had endeavored frequently to have purchased the possession of the place, and had offered many times its value for its price; but as the owner overlooked their offers, so did he put up other buildings on the place, in way of affront to them, and made working-shops of them, and left but a narrow passage, and such as was very troublesome for the Jews to go along to their synagogue. Whereupon the warmer part of the Jewish youth went hastily to the workmen, and forbade them to build there… 
  Now on the next day, which was the seventh day of the week, when the Jews were crowding apace to their synagogue, a certain man of Caesarea, of a seditious temper, got an earthen vessel, and set it with the bottom upward, at the entrance of that synagogue, and sacrificed birds. This thing provoked the Jews to an incurable degree, because their laws were affronted, and the place was polluted. 
   Whereupon the sober and moderate part of the Jews thought it proper to have recourse to their governors again, while the seditious part, and such as were in the fervor of their youth, were vehemently inflamed to fight. The seditious also among the Gentiles of Caesarea stood ready for the same purpose; for they had by agreement beforehand sent the man to sacrifice; so that it soon came to blows. 
     Hereupon Jucundus, the Commander of the Cavalry, who was ordered to prevent the fight, came thither, and took away the earthen vessel, and endeavored to put a stop to the sedition; but when he was overcome by the violence of the people of Caesarea, the Jews caught up their books of the law, and retired to Narbata. 

Natural Avarice of Governors 
Antiquities 18.6.2 172 
(Tiberius' philosophy) 
For it was a law of nature that governors were prone to engage in extortion. 
 

Felix Arranges the Assassination of High Priest Jonathan 
A 20.8.5 162-4 
 
Felix also bore an ill-will to Jonathan, the high priest, because of his frequent admonitions to improve the administration of  Jewish affairs; for Jonathan feared that he himself would have complaints made of him by the multitude, since he it was who had requested Caesar to send Felix as procurator of Judea. So Felix contrived a method whereby he might get rid of one who had become so continually troublesome to him; for such continual rebukes are annoying to those who are disposed to do wrong. For such reasons Felix persuaded one of Jonathan's most trusted friends, a citizen of Jerusalem named Doras, to bring the robbers upon Jonathan, in order to kill him; and this he did by promising to pay a great deal of money. Doras complied with the proposal, and contrived for the robbers to murder him in the following way. Certain of those robbers went up to the city as if they were going to worship God, while they had daggers under their garments, and by thus mingling themselves among the multitude they slew Jonathan. 

Nero Fails to Punish Felix (60 CE) 
A 20.8.9 182 
 
When Portius Festus was sent by Nero as successor to Felix, the leaders of the Jewish community of Caesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix. He would undoubtedly have paid the penalty for his misdeeds against the Jews had not Nero yielded to the urgent entreaty of Felix's brother Pallas, whom at that time he held in the highest honour. 

The Cooperation  of Albinus with Criminals and Rebels (62-64 CE) 
War 2.14.1  272  
(See also Antiquities  20.9.1-5 197 ff.) 

   But then Albinus, who succeeded Festus, did not execute his office as ably; nor was there any sort of wickedness that could be named but he had a hand in it. Accordingly, he did not only, in his political capacity, steal and plunder every one's substance, nor did he only burden the whole nation with taxes; but he permitted the relations of such as were in prison for robbery, and had been laid there either by the senate of every city or by the former procurators, to redeem them for money. And nobody remained in the prisons as a malefactor but he who gave him nothing. 
   At this time it was that the enterprises of the seditious at Jerusalem were very formidable; the principal men among them purchasing leave of Albinus to go on with their seditious practices; while that part of the people who delighted in disturbances joined themselves to those who had  fellowship with Albinus. Every one of these wicked wretches was encompassed with his own band of robbers, while Albinus himself, like an arch-robber or a tyrant, made a figure among his company, and abused his authority over those about him, in order to plunder those that lived quietly. 
   The effect of which was this, that those who lost their goods were forced to hold their peace, when they had reason to show great indignation at what they had suffered; but those who had escaped were forced to flatter him that deserved to be punished, out of the fear they were in of suffering equally with the others. 
    Upon the whole, nobody dared speak their minds, but tyranny was generally tolerated; and at this time were those seeds sown which brought the city to destruction.

Excesses of Florus (64-66 CE) 
War 2.14.2 277 
(see also A20.11.1 252-257)  

And although such was the character of Albinus, yet did Gessius Florus, who succeeded him, demonstrate him to have been upon comparison a most excellent person. For the former did the greatest part of his rogueries in private, and with a sort of dissimulation; but Gessius did his unjust actions to the harm of the nation after a pompous manner; and as though he had been sent as an executioner to punish condemned malefactors, he omitted no sort of rapine, or of vexation. Where the case was really pitiable, he was most barbarous; and in things of the greatest turpitude, he was most impudent; nor could any one outdo him in disguising the truth; nor could any one contrive more subtle ways of deceit than he did. He indeed thought it but a petty offence to get money out of single persons; so he spoiled whole cities, and ruined entire bodies of men at once, and did almost publicly proclaim it all the country over, that they had liberty given them to turn robbers, upon this condition, that he might go shares with them in the spoils. 
    Accordingly, this his greediness of gain was the occasion that entire toparchies were brought to desolation; and a great many of the people left their own country, and flew into foreign provinces. 

Florus Provokes War to Avoid Punishment 
W 2.14.3 282-283 
 
He had at that very time the purpose of showing his anger at the nation, and procuring a war upon them, by which means alone it was that he supposed he might conceal his enormities; for he expected that, if the peace continued, he should have the Jews for his accusers before Caesar; but that if he could procure them to make a revolt, he should divert their laying lesser crimes to his charge, by a misery that was so much greater; he therefore did every day augment their calamities, in order to induce them to a rebellion. 

Florus Takes Treasure from the Temple  (66 CE) 
W 2.14.6  
 
Moreover, as to the citizens of Jerusalem, although they took this matter [the dealings in Caesarea] very ill, yet did they restrain their passion; but Florus acted herein as if he had been hired, and blew up the war into a flame, and sent some to take seventeen talents out of the sacred treasure, and pretended that Caesar wanted them. At this the people were in confusion immediately, and ran together to the Temple, with prodigious clamours, and called upon Caesar by name, and besought him to free them from the tyranny of Florus. 
  Some also of the seditious cried out upon Florus, and cast the greatest reproaches upon him, and carried a basket about, and begged some spells of money for him, as for one that was destitute of possessions, and in a miserable condition. 
  Yet was not he made ashamed hereby of his love of money, but was more enraged and provoked to get still more; and instead of  coming to Caesarea, as he ought to have done, and quenched the flame of war, which was beginning thence...he marched hastily with an army of horsemen and footmen against Jerusalem, that he might gain his will by the arms of the Romans, and might, by his terror and by his threatenings, bring the city into subjection. 

Orders soldiers to Plunder Upper Market Place  
War 2.14.9 
 Florus ... called out aloud to the soldiers to plunder that which was called the Upper Market-place, and to slay such as they met with. ...they also caught many of the quiet people, and brought them before Florus, whom he first chastised with stripes and then crucified. Accordingly, the whole number of those that were destroyed that day, with their wives and children, (for they did not spare even the infants themselves,) was about three thousand and six hundred. And what made this calamity the heavier was this new method of Roman barbarity; for Florus ventured then to do what no one had done before, that is, to have men of the equestrian order whipped and nailed to the cross before his tribunal; who, although they were by birth Jews, yet were they of Roman dignity notwithstanding. 
 
 

Josephus Decides War was Necessary 
A 20.11.1 257 

What more need be said? It was Florus who constrained us to take up war with the Romans, for we preferred to perish together rather than by degrees. The war in fact began in the second year of the procuratorship of Florus and in the twelfth of Nero's reign. 

   W 2.17.2  408-410 
   And now some of the most ardent promoters of hostilities banded together and made an assault on the fortress called Masada, and having gained possession of it by stratagem, they slew the Roman guards and put a garrison of their own in their place. 
   At the same time Eleazar, the son of Ananias the high priest, a very bold youth, who was at that time governor of the Temple, persuaded those that officiated in the Divine service to receive no gift or sacrifice for any foreigner. And this was the true beginning of our war with the Romans; for they rejected the sacrifice of Caesar on this account; and when many of the chief priests and principal men besought them not to omit the sacrifice, which it was customary for them to offer for their princes, they would not be prevailed upon.